Battle of Britain - World War II

Clash of Britain - World War II Clash of Britain: Conflict Dates The Battle of Britain was battled July 10 to late October 1940, during World War II. Authorities Illustrious Air Force Air Chief Marshal Hugh DowdingAir Vice Marshal Keith ParkAir Vice Marshal Trafford Leigh-MalloryLuftwaffeReichsmarschall Hermann GÃ ¶ringField Marshal Albert KesselringField Marshal Hugo SperrleGeneraloberst Hans-Jã ¼rgen Stumpff Clash of Britain: Background With the fall of France in June 1940, Britain alone was left to confront the developing intensity of Nazi Germany. In spite of the fact that a great part of the British Expeditionary Force had been effectively emptied from Dunkirk, it had been constrained to leave quite a bit of its overwhelming gear behind. Not savoring attacking Britain, Adolph Hitler at first sought that Britain would sue after an arranged harmony. This expectation immediately disintegrated as new Prime Minister Winston Churchill reasserted Britains pledge to battle on to the end. Responding to this, Hitler requested on July 16 that arrangements start for the intrusion of Great Britain. Named Operation Sea Lion, this arrangement required an attack to occur in August. As the Kriegsmarine had been severely diminished in before battles, a key essential for the intrusion was the end of the Royal Air Force to guarantee that the Luftwaffe had air predominance over the Channel. With this close by, the Luftwaffe would have the option to hold the Royal Navy under control as German soldiers arrived in southern England. Clash of Britain: The Luftwaffe Prepares To wipe out the RAF, Hitler turned the head of the Luftwaffe, Reichsmarschall Hermann Gã ¶ring. A veteran of World War I, the colorful and bombastic Gã ¶ring had capably supervised the Luftwaffe during the early battles of the war. For the coming fight, he moved his powers to bring three Luftflotten (Air Fleets) to endure on Britain. While Field Marshal Albert Kesselring and Field Marshal Hugo Sperrles Luftflotte 2 and 3 flew from the Low Countries and France, Generaloberst Hans-Jã ¼rgen Stumpffs Luftflotte 5 would assault from bases in Norway. To a great extent intended to offer ethereal help for the German Armys lightning war style of assault, the Luftwaffe was not well-prepared for the kind of key shelling that would be required in the coming effort. In spite of the fact that its vital warrior, the Messerschmitt Bf 109, was equivalent to the best British contenders, the range at which it is compelled to work restricted the time it could spend over Britain. Toward the beginning of the fight, the Bf 109 was upheld by the twin-motor Messerschmitt Bf 110. Planned as a long range escort warrior, the Bf 110 immediately demonstrated powerless against the more agile British contenders and was a disappointment in this job. Coming up short on a four-motor vital aircraft, the Luftwaffe depended on a trio of littler twin-motor planes, the Heinkel He 111, Junkers Ju 88, and the maturing Dornier Do 17. These were bolstered by the single-motor Junkers Ju 87 Stuka plunge aircraft. A successful weapon in the wars early fights, the Stuka at last demonstrated profoundly defenseless against British contenders and was pulled back from the battle. Clash of Britain: The Dowding System His Chicks Over the Channel, the elevated protection of Britain was endowed to the head of Fighter Command, Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding. Having a thorny character and nicknamed Stuffy, Dowding had assumed control over Fighter Command in 1936. Working indefatigably, he had regulated the improvement of the RAFs two cutting edge contenders, the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire. While the last was a counterpart for the BF 109, the previous was somewhat outmaneuvered yet was fit for out-turning the German contender. Envisioning the requirement for more prominent capability, Dowding had the two warriors furnished with eight automatic rifles. Exceptionally defensive of his pilots, he frequently alluded to them as his chicks. While understanding the requirement for new propelled warriors, Dowding was likewise key in perceiving that they must be utilized viably in the event that they were appropriately controlled starting from the earliest stage. To this end, he bolstered the improvement of Radio Direction Finding (radar) and the formation of the Chain Home radar arrange. This new innovation was consolidated into his Dowding System which saw the joining of radar, ground spectators, attack plotting, and radio control of airplane. These divergent segments were integrated through an ensured phone organize that was managed through his home office at RAF Bentley Priory. Likewise, to more readily control his airplane, he partitioned the order into four gatherings to cover the entirety of Britain (Map). These comprised of Air Vice Marshal Sir Quintin Brands 10 Group (Wales and the West Country), Air Vice Marshal Keith Parks 11 Group (Southeastern England), Air Vice Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallorys 12 Group (Midland East Anglia), and Air Vice Marshal Richard Sauls 13 Group (Northern England, Scotland, Northern Ireland). In spite of the fact that booked to resign in June 1939, Dowding was approached to stay in his post until March 1940 because of the breaking down worldwide circumstance. His retirement was in this way deferred until July and afterward October. Anxious to protect his quality, Dowding had vivaciously restricted the sending of Hurricane units over the Channel during the Battle of France. Clash of Britain: German Intelligence Failures As the majority of Fighter Commands quality had been husbanded in Britain during the prior battling, the Luftwaffe had a poor gauge of its quality. As the fight started, Gã ¶ring accepted that the British had between 300-400 warriors when in fact, Dowding had more than 700. This drove the German administrator to accept that Fighter Command could be cleared from the skies in four days. While the Luftwaffe knew about the British radar framework and ground control arrange, it excused their significance and accepted that they made a firm strategic framework for the British units. As a general rule, the framework allowed adaptability for unit commandants to settle on fitting choices dependent on the latest information. Skirmish of Britain: Tactics In light of insight gauges, Gã ¶ring expected to rapidly clear Fighter Command from the skies over southeastern England. This was to be trailed by a four-week besieging effort which would start with strikes against RAF landing strips close to the coast and afterward move continuously inland to hit the bigger division runways. Extra strikes would target military focuses just as airplane creation offices. As arranging pushed ahead, the plan was stretched out to five weeks from August 8 to September 15. Throughout the fight, an argument about procedure rose between Kesselring, who supported direct assaults on London to compel the RAF into a conclusive fight, and Sperrle who wanted proceeded with assaults on the British air barriers. This debate would stew without Gã ¶ring making an understood decision. As the fight started, Hitler gave a mandate restricting the shelling of London as he dreaded retaliation strikes against German urban communities. At Bentley Priory, Dowding chose the most ideal approach to use his airplane and pilots was to maintain a strategic distance from huge scope fights noticeable all around. Realizing that an airborne Trafalgar would permit the Germans to all the more precisely measure his quality, he expected to feign the foe by assaulting in group quality. Mindful that he was dwarfed and couldn't totally forestall the besieging of Britain, Dowding tried to deliver an unreasonable pace of misfortune on the Luftwaffe. To achieve this, he needed the Germans to continually accept that Fighter Command was toward the finish of its assets to guarantee that it continued assaulting and taking misfortunes. This was not the most mainstream game-plan and it was not so much to the Air Ministrys satisfying, however Dowding comprehended that as long as Fighter Command stayed a danger the German attack couldn't push ahead. In training his pilots, he accentuated that they were pursue the German aircraft and maintain a strategic distance from contender to-warrior battle whenever the situation allows. Likewise, he wished the battling to occur over Britain as pilots who were destroyed could be immediately recuperated and come back to their units. Clash of Britain: Der Kanalkampf Battling initially started on July 10 as the Royal Air Force and Luftwaffe skirmished over the Channel. Named the Kanalkampf or Channel Battles, these commitment saw German Stukas assaulting British seaside caravans. Despite the fact that Dowding would have liked to stop the guards as opposed to squander pilots and planes shielding them, he was obstructed from above by Churchill and the Royal Navy who declined to emblematically surrender control of the Channel. As the battle proceeded, the Germans presented their twin-motor aircraft which were accompanied by Messerschmitt contenders. Because of the nearness of the German runways to the coast, the warriors of No. 11 Group regularly didn't adequate admonition so as to obstruct these assaults. Accordingly, Parks warriors were required to lead watches which stressed the two pilots and hardware. The battling about the Channel gave a preparation ground to the two sides as they arranged for the bigger fight to come. During June and July, Fi ghter Command lost 96 airplane while bringing down 227. Skirmish of Britain: Adlerangriff The little quantities of British contenders that his airplane had experienced in July and early August further persuaded Gã ¶ring that Fighter Command was working with around 300-400 airplane. Having arranged for a monstrous aeronautical hostile, named Adlerangriff (Eagle Attack), he looked for four continuous long periods of clear climate in which to start it. Some underlying assaults started on August 12 which saw German airplane cause minor harm to a few waterfront runways just as assault four radar stations. Endeavoring to hit the tall radar towers instead of the more significant plotting hovels and tasks focuses, the strikes did littl

Importance of Innovation and Change Within an Organization

Significance of Innovation and Change Within an Organization In todays continually evolving world, change and advancement assume a critical job inside any association. New advancements like quicker programming and equipment and improved assembling frameworks are expanding creation and changing the manner in which we work together over the globe. Recently propelling markets, for example, China and India are turning out to be increasingly industrialist, opening the entryway for partnerships to come and work together. There are different components when managing development and change inside an association. The main component is the way an association can change effectively which comprises of the means that are required and the procedure that gets change going. The following component is innovative change, which is the way associations adjust and execute new innovation. From new innovation, associations think of our next component, new items and administrations. As these associations become bigger and bigger there is the requirement for technique and structure change just as social changes. These two components frequently go connected at the hip and can be probably the most hard to change. There are five key components when seeing what is fundamental for fruitful change. The first is thoughts. So as to realize transform you have to have another thought or thought. Inventiveness, advancement and fresh reasoning assume a colossal job here. As a rule the absolute best thoughts can emerge out of the most improbable spots. An examination directed by Daniel Tzabbar and his group, found that significant levels of coordinated effort advances development, as it empowers a free progression of thoughts among individuals who must cooperate to find new answers for issues. (Tzabbar 17) With this being stated, numerous new thoughts originate from the joint efforts of gatherings and people inside an association. The subsequent factor is need. There must be an apparent requirement for change. Continually evolving structures, procedures, or culture can really be a terrible thing whenever abused. On the off chance that a particular change is going to happen, there should be a recognizable explanation so as to make that particular change essential. Then again, an association that neglects to understand the requirement for change is bound for disappointment. It is the duty of upper administration to be responsive and mindful of when change is required yet not all that delicate that change gets over the top. An article entitled Change for Changes Sake offers and intriguing perspective on the subject of realizing when to change. As indicated by the article, an association intermittently needs to shake itself up paying little heed to the outer condition. The creators contend that a couple of things happen when an association doesn't change enough. In the first place, organizations that are sorted out around a solitary standard, for example, capacity, item, or market, keep an eye on just speak with themselves and not with different units accordingly making them delayed to adjust to changes in nature. Next associations are probably going to get dug in a normal perspective, neglecting to acknowledge new chances and the chance of dangers. At long last, associations become incredibly wasteful at designating assets. So as to battle these elements, associations should change structures now and again to keep itself prepared to respond rapidly to its condition. (Vermeulen et. al. 70-76) The third factor is reception. After the new thoughts have been thought of on the most proficient method to change and there is an apparent requirement for that change, another thought is picked. Since a thought has been picked the time has come to try that thought. This carries us to our next factor, execution. As indicated by Scott Sonenshein of Rice University Implementing vital change is one of the most significant endeavors of an association. Effective execution of vital change can revive a business, however disappointment can prompt cataclysmic outcomes. (Sonenshein 477). The executives must have an unshakable arrangement on how they need to actualize change. An undertaking the board approach is the best methodology when actualizing such change, with the meaning of clear achievement measures being significant. (Oakland, Tanner 2) The last factor is assets. Through human vitality and movement the thought is actualized and kept alive. Individuals are the most significant asset and the fundamental supporters of fruitful change, without them, change can't occur. It is significant that your representatives are altogether prepared and comprehend what is being changed and why. Enabling them with this information will just upgrade and increment the chance of fruitful execution of the progressions put forward. Inside an association there is consistently the requirement for creating, obtaining, and embracing new innovation. New advancements are continually coming to fruition and tremendously affect associations. The fundamental way to deal with mechanical change is the able to use both hands approach. This joins both the natural and unthinking structures. Under the able to use both hands approach there are various choices of how to realize new innovation. Exchanging structures brings individuals from various regions of an association together to impart thoughts and innovation to one another. Inventive divisions comprise of an innovative work office. The sole obligation of this office is to concocted new innovation and test new advancements to guarantee they will be helpful for the association. Another mainstream choice is the utilization of adventure groups. Adventure groups are basically their own association inside an association. They regularly have their own different area and structure so as to grow new advancements. Notwithstanding RD and adventure groups, another approach to increment mechanical information and achieve innovation change is to get innovation from outside sources. Procter Gamble gives a brilliant case of interorganizational innovation move. Generally 50% of new item advancement ventures include key thoughts from outside sources. Procter Gamble additionally utilizes a functioning permitting technique of their own innovative advances to produce millions in yearly authorizing income. Pharmaceuticals are infamous for utilizing this kind of procedure to achieve mechanical change inside their associations. (Lichtenthaler 2) Despite the extraordinary measure of progress accomplished by these organizations, most associations are as yet shy about sharing their own innovative advances. They dread that thusly, it will permit their rivals access to their own upper hand. While this might be valid in certain occurrences, apparently interorganizational innovation move can really profit associat ions and at last customers. While there are sure special cases, new items and administrations are normally the immediate consequence of new innovation and thinking of new items and administrations is imperative for accomplishment in todays markets. As business sectors develop so should your items or administrations. The subject of how to make and present new items currently emerges. Michelle Karas offers 11 stages that assist associations with noting this unpredictable and testing question. Stage one is to break down the circumstance. Assess your condition and current item position and afterward recognize your qualities, shortcomings, openings and dangers. The subsequent stage is to investigate and inquire about item needs. Conceptualize thoughts, have a receptive outlook and record all thoughts. Make sense of what your clients needs are and your rivals constraints. Stage three is to decide utilization and recognize what showcase you need to focus with your item. Stage four calls for building up a model. This i nvolves changing over a thought into a real item and deciding the items determinations, highlights and advantages. Stage five is to decide the cost dependent on your targets. Testing the item or administration is the subsequent stage and is completely essential to its prosperity. It is additionally essential to guarantee that all tasks inside your business can completely bolster the item. (Karas 32-34) After the item has been altogether tried, the time has come to build up deals objectives. Recognize target deals objectives, and whether these objectives are reasonable and reachable. The following stage includes building up a showcasing plan for both inside and outside business sectors that accomplishes the objectives put forward before. Stage nine is preparing and educatin representatives. Guarantee representatives/sales reps see all parts of the item. Qualities like value, depiction, how the item works, and deals objectives should all be completely comprehended. The last two stages include really acquainting the item with the market and assessing the outcomes. Record how the item performs and how the clients react. (Karas 32-34) While these means are very rearranged, these are the nuts and bolts ideas that associations use, paying little mind to estimate. An incredible case of items that have quite recently as of late been presented is Sonys Move and Microsofts Kinect gaming frameworks. Both of these frameworks permit clients to utilize their own bodies to turn out to be increasingly dynamic and associated with the gaming experience, fundamentally the same as the Wii. At the point when the Nintendo Wii appeared, it was the first gamming arrangement of its sort to offer an intuitive gaming experience. It was a gigantic achievement and both Sony and Microsoft understood the chance to have their bit of the pie as well. Instead of think of a totally new gamming framework, using new innovation, Sony and Microsoft planned a gadget that would basically be utilized related to clients Playstation 3 and X-Box reassures. As time passes by it will be intriguing to perceive what impacts propositions frameworks have on Wii deals and whether they are beneficial for both Sony and Microsoft. Obliging the computer game subject, Sega, which offered mainstream gaming supports during the 90s neglected to improve and offer an item sufficiently able to rival Sonys Playstation and Nintendos N64. The outcome was Sega expelling itself from the equipment side of gaming and concentrating exclusively on

Champagne, pistols, and my new UROP

Champagne, pistols, and my new UROP There are many legendary stories of perseverance in history.  Custers Last Stand.  The Battle of the Alamo.  That one time those buff Spartan dudes kicked lots of people into wells. And then theres this guy: As you may know, legend says there is always a light on in the Green Building.  Thats because those nocturnal diurnal  (whats the term for does not sleep? not-urnal?) creatures known as grad students never stop working.  And if there ever comes a time when there are no lights on in the Green Building then you know the worlds about to end. Yes, ladies and gentlemen, that means that one poor soul in the Green Building, tooling on in the face of a massive power outage, keeping that one light on, is the only person keeping this world in balance.  Hes kind of like the Avatar, except that being an MIT person he probably has some lame power like wifi-bending or something. (yes, we had a Korra-watching marathon over Thanksgiving and it was totally awesome.  Makorra all the way, btw.) Anyways! As you may or may not have noticed, Ive been absent from these blogs for the past few weeks, and thats because Ive been super busy.  One might even call this past week a Heck Week, if one were following the advice of one wholesome blogger alum.  Heres a quick rundown of what Ive been up to: UROP in Langer Lab   Ive been dying to tell you guys about this, but I only recently got all the applications done and didnt want to blog my chickens before they hatched. I GOT MY DREAM UROP! Its in Langer Lab, of the Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research.  My research group is working on a siRNA-based treatment of liver cancer and it has huge, huge potential.  In a nutshell: siRNA (short interfering RNA) is part of a natural gene-regulating mechanism called RNA interference, where siRNA is used to stop specific genes from being translated.  siRNA does this by binding to and destroying mRNA molecules before they can be translated into proteins. What if you could find siRNA that shut off the genes that cause cancer cells to go haywire?  Thats the exact idea behind this siRNA-based therapy.  Langer Lab has developed siRNA that can shut off 10 genes at once in the livers of mice, and theyve also developed nanoparticles to deliver the siRNA (although this is very much still an ongoing field of research). It’s really, really exciting. My specific role in the project is to work with my postdoc to find novel targets in liver cancer cells for the siRNA to attack.  The UROP involves all sorts of stuff I’m interested in wet lab, molecular biology, cell cultures, and computational biology (!). After taking Intro to Python this IAP, hopefully I’ll be able to apply it in some lab work. This is going to be awesome. Right now, though, Im still in training all Langer Lab training is quite comprehensive, and mine has to be even more so because Ill be working with lab rats and that involves extra animal protocols. Also, for those of you who dont know about Langer Lab its the largest biomedical engineering lab in the world, with around $10 million (!) in annual grants.  Professor Bob Langer is legendary hes the most cited engineer in history, winner of the Draper Prize (engineerings equivalent of the Nobel), and all-around nice guy (hes known for replying to emails under two minutes, whether its the President of the United States ora lowly UROP student).  The New York Times did a great profile of him a few days ago, and Langer Lab used some of its massive budget to throw a celebratory champagne party.  Which I was not invited to.  Sad face. Pistol At MIT, we do a lot of things differently.  PE is one of them.  You can forget running laps and all that lame stuff you did in high school (unless you like that stuff, in which case we have a track and field team).  MITs got a lot of awesome PE classes, from badminton to archery to sailing to fencing. Im taking pistol right now, and this is the most fun Ive had in PE ever.  Mike Conti, the instructor (hes the guy on the left, with the gray hearing protection), is superb hes former military and a former Massachusetts SWAT trainer.  Were shooting a .22 LR round, with the Ruger MkIII.  Our Top Gun competition is coming up this Tuesday, actually and I am in it to win it. Psets.  Lots of psets. Fun and games and pistols and siRNA aside yes, I still have to pset.  Only three weeks left before winter break, though! Speaking of which IAP I cannot wait for IAP.  For those who dont know, Independent Activities Period is a month-long vacation in January that MIT gives us, separate from winter break.  Some people choose to stay home, but most people take advantage of the awesome fun classes and activities going on.  For example, Ill be taking blacksmithing (just one step closer to my ultimate goal of making an Iron Man suit!), and also will be taking MITs Intro to Python class.  Theres also a lot of non-academic stuff going on chocolate truffle-making classes, wine tasting, coding competitions, robotics competitions, etc. As one upperclassmen described it to me IAP is basically all the awesomeness and passion of MIT, crammed into one month, without psets. For now, though adieu! [EDIT: HALLELUJAH THE LIGHTS JUST WENT BACK ON]

Card Security For Republic Bank Customers - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 23 Words: 6808 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? There is no doubt that most organisations today are becoming essentially dependant on the use of credit cards, arguably its most strategic asset, is to support existing business operations. However, credit card fraud and identity theft has continues to plague the banking and retail industries as there seems to be no feasible solution to these crimes. Advances in technology have opened a gateway for hackers to restructure their position of attack, intruding on oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s personal life. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Card Security For Republic Bank Customers" essay for you Create order The basis of this project is on the new Chip and PIN technology introduced on credit cards. Ià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ve considered this to be an interesting topic because of the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"publicityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ this technology has been receiving across the world and it has even reached to our shores, here in Trinidad and Tobago. Hence, Republic Bank Limited one of the local banks would be the case studied in this research. Chapter two would encompass the existing literature on credit card history and Chip and PIN. This chapter would outline how credit cards have become à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"smart cardsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and how the Chip and PIN cards are used. Chapter three gives the entire design of the project and the objectives to be obtained for the research. Moving to chapter four, the research framework adopted for this study on Chip and PIN and how it relates to the model undertaken in the research. The findings from this research would be summarized version of the data collected, with the analysis of the theory and research framework the author undertook in this study. In concluding, the author would report on the learning aspects of the research and provide an assessment of achievements, giving a position on the research question. Literature REVIEW This section is intended to place the scope of the project with literature surrounding the components of the research question. The Credit Card Transaction Process Discussed This payment mechanism was formally introduced in 1958, when the BankAmericard card, now known as Visa was franchised across the global community. By introducing an electronic authorization system, the BankAmericard was able to be used globally. Now by partnering with banks across the globe, Visa has been able to provide an international processing system for the exchange of money. The workings of a credit card transaction are such that it comprises of four main steps. These are: Authorization Batching Clearing Funding The cardholder requests a purchase from the merchant, which is then submitted to the acquirer by the merchant. The acquirer then sends a request to the issuer to authorize the transaction. Once the authorization code is sent to the acquirer verifying that credit is available, the transaction is authorized and the cardholder receives the product. (This is further explained in detail on page 9 of this document) This simple process of electronic transacting has opened up a world of e-commerce opportunities. From an information system perspective the processing workflow of an online credit card transaction is shown below: Figure 1: Online Credit Card Processing Workflow Diagram (Hubbard, 2003) Because of the vulnerabilities that lay in a transaction, more so the networks across which the information is exchanged, various security breaches can occur. Types of Credit Card Fraud There are many different types of credit card fraud. Fraudsters are very innovative in finding new ways of committing credit card crime and as technology changes so does their crime tactics. Security issues surrounding the card fraud has moved from the traditional ways of committing credit card crime (Application Fraud, Intercept Fraud and Lost/Stolen Card Fraud) to the modern techniques namely, Skimming, Site Cloning and most recently Triangulation. Skimming is the fastest growing type of credit card fraud around because of its simplicity. Pocket Skimming devices can be easily carried around and the cardholderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s data can be obtained by merely swiping the card through the battery-operated magnetic card reader. This technology has also evolved so as to read the data of Chip and PIN cards, with the use of a scanner. These scanners, which can write or even re-write the data on the Chip cards, are fully portable and have high storage capacities. Because some of these devices are not illegal, they are easily accessible to hackers and can be bought over the internet. Site Cloning involves cloning an entire site or just the pages where customers make purchases. Since the web pages are identical customers are not aware that their personal information is being compromised. Also, confirmation details are sent to the customer just as the official companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s website would, so the crime goes undetected. The details entered on the cloned site are then used by the fraudster to commit credit card fraud. Another method of credit card fraud is Triangulation. Goods are presented on websites at discounted prices, which can be shipped to the customer before payment. Again, just as with site cloning, the site appears to be legitimate then the customer proceeds to enter their personal data. With this captured information the fraudster can then order goods from legitimate retail websites using the credit card number obtained. Due to these security issues surrounding credit card information security, there has been global industry-wide concern for the protection of cardholderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s data. Since security management is a systematic issue, a serious look at what can be done to prevent security breaches is necessary-whether it may be legislation, the use of fraud detection system monitors or the application of data encryption/ authentication techniques. Chip and PIN Technology Credit cards have been a feasible solution for making payment processing simple and efficient. The history of the credit card dates back to the 1900à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s when oil companies and proprietors created their own credit card as a means of obtaining customer loyalty and improving customer service. However, as with advances in technology, the credit cards have evolved from having just encoded magnetic stripes to modern day Chip and PIN cards, with embedded microchips, which can store and transmit data. These Chip and PIN cards were developed to provide an inter-operative system that would combat card fraud (counterfeit and plastic cards). This transaction processing infrastructure has enabled the cash-less revolution, whereby consumers, governments and businesses benefit from the electronic payment network, which has shifted payments by cash and cheques to an efficient electronic payment system. The mechanics of a credit card transaction is such that the merchant acquirer, usually the bank processes transactions on behalf of the merchant. This payment by credit card represents an offer for issuance of payment in exchange for the goods or services provided by the merchant, (Transaction Processing). There are two parts to this type of transaction processing: the first is front end processing which involves the capture of data messages across communication channels to the point of sale devices; and secondly the back end processing which involves the balancing of accounting information by acquirers and issuers and the submission of the payment to the acquiring merchantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s bank. As a result of the rapid advances in technology, data security continues to be a major concern as every transaction that involves the transmission data across networks is open to external attacks. Attacks on a consumerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s card information can come from any angle, whether it may be data thieves or network intruders. The Payment Card Industry Security Standards Council (PCI SSC), which comprises of major payment brands namely VISA, MasterCard, Discover and a few others, have created global compliance standards to protect cardholdersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ data. These set of standards help govern and educate all merchants and organisations that process, store and transmit data, as well as the manufactures of the devices used in transaction processing. The PCI SSC (2010), Data Security Standard Quick Reference Guide, as summarized below, outlines the best practices for protecting cardholder data: Develop and Maintain a Secure Network Install and maintain firewall configuration to protect cardholderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s data. Do not use vendor-supplied defaults for system passwords or other security parameters. Protect cardholderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s data Protect stored data Encrypt transmission of cardholderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s data across open public networks Maintain a vulnerability management program Use and regularly update anti-virus software or programs Develop and maintain secure systems and applications Implement strong access control measures Restrict access to cardholder data by business need to know Assign a unique ID to persons with computer access Restrict physical access to cardholder data Regularly monitor and test networks Track and monitor all access to network resources and cardholder data Regularly test security systems and resources Maintain an information security policy Maintain a policy that address information security for all personnel Nevertheless, despite these procedures in place, there has been amplified instances of the various types of credit card fraud, namely Intercept Fraud, Skimming, Site Cloning as well as Triangulation. This propelled an industry and governmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"led initiative in the UK to embark on the introduction of Chip and PIN card technology. Based on the EMV standard (Euro pay, MasterCard, Visa) Chip and PIN technology was launched in the UK on February 14th 2006. This programme was introduced to combat credit and debit card fraud, and to provide an ideal way of validating the cardholderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s identity. By utilizing smart card technology a microchip is embedded with the customerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s information which includes their unique four digit PIN. For transactions to be accepted, the customer PIN entered must match the one encoded on the microchip. These steps are further explained below: The card is inserted by the customer into the card reader. The card reader would then prompt the user to insert their PIN. A four-digit PIN is then entered by the customer. Once the reader accepts the PIN entered the transaction would be approved. Note the PIN entered is not displayed on the reader but rather represented by asterisks. The customer is issued a receipt as confirmation of the transaction process. This process removes the responsibility and accountability from the merchant to the customer for point of sale transactions. The card never leaves the customerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s hand and as such prevents skimming of oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s card information. One of the benefits of the Chip and PIN cards is that the Chip itself is encrypted with a range of security features, which the transaction processing system uses to identify the cardholder. These security features are said to be virtually impossible to replicate. The terminals used for Chip and PIN transactions, use secure transmission technology to ensure the privacy of the cardholderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s data and can operate over a range of connectivity environments, such as wired, wireless and cellular networks. The PCI Security Standards Council also developed a framework of standards which is legally enforced through a merchant/service provider/card brand agreement. These include requirements that support the encryption of the cardholdersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ account data and the point of sale terminal integration. Figure 2: Outline of the process of a Chip and PIN transaction The PIN entered replaces the request for signature as verification of the transaction. This is why the banking industry in the UK has campaigned for this technology, because signatures can be forged, however the PIN is unique to that person. Although the United States is yet to convert to this technology, countries such as Japan, China, Canada, Mexico as well as the majority of the European Countries have all introduced Chip and PIN technology and it is gaining momentum in various other countries including Trinidad and Tobago. Republic Bank Trinidad and Tobago Limited is the first local bank in Trinidad and Tobago to introduce Chip and PIN technology to make the concept of paying by credit card safer for cardholders. The bank adopted this type of technology because this is now an industry-wide conversion from the magnetic-stripe cards and it is also in keeping with the EMV standard. Conversely, a potential security issue with Chip and PIN card terminals is its capability of processing cards with the magnetic stripe as well. Because of this the request to enter the customerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s PIN can be bypassed by the merchant, with a receipt generated to be signed by the customer. Now because this option is still available it poses an added security threat to card transactions. So, unfortunately skimming still remains a huge problem for cardholders and sadly enough this includes Chip and PIN cardholders as well. Although this practice is slowly migrating from EMV compliant countries, once a card has been skimmed it can still be used in countries where the magnetic stripe is still prevalent, for example some Asian Countries and the United States. This is why many fraudsters can still create a fake card with stolen magnetic stripe information which can be used in for example the United States. The United States believes that although Chip and PIN has reduced fraud for face to face card transactions, there are a still a number of issues surrounding the security of the system used for this these transactions. Now as with any new system introduced, there have been a number of studies on whether Chip and PIN cards are really secure. So the question is has Chip and PIN technology impacted on the activities of overall card fraud or has the activities of fraudsters shifted from retail crime. In a study by Emily Finch (2010) The Impact of Chip and Pin Technology and The Activities of Fraudsters, it was recognised that since the implementation of Chip and PIN technology participants involved in card fraud made varying decisions when it came to their crime of choice. The Decision to Desist The Decision to Continue To work with others Shift to Distance Transactions Diversification of Theft into Identity The study also shows that there is a shift in the attack strategy of fraudsters from point of sale card fraud to Internet and Card Identity Fraud. In an analysis of Internet and Card Identity Fraud, we can note that Chip and PIN technology was not designed for preventing these types of card fraud. So, the question remains, was Chip and PIN successful at what it was set out to achievereduce card fraud? This too can be argued further as there are other limitations. How can one link a particular card to a specific owner? Once the PIN is known by the individual a transaction can be completed with ease. Other studies have shown that the card readers used for Chip and PIN transactions can be modified. In a study by a team of University of Cambridge Computer Scientists, they have uncovered a series of fatal flaws in the Chip and PIN system. One example is where the internal hardware can be replaced without external evidence of this. This new terminal could then be programmed and modified so that it performs just as a typical terminal, where the card details can be collected and allow criminals to make cards with a fake magnetic stripe, which along with the PIN would enable a fraudster to make à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"validà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ purchases. Another example is that fraudsters can insert an electronic wedge between the stolen card and the terminal, which tricks the terminal into believing that the PIN was correctly verified. Further, with this wedge inserted, any PIN can be entered and the transaction would be verified. This type of fraud makes it difficult for the victims of the attack to be refunded by the bank as the receipt given is authentic and would state verified by PIN. The bank in turn would be accurate in stating that no refund is required as their records show verified by PIN. This type of complaint appears as an act of negligence by the cardholder as he/she allowed their PIN to be compromised. So based on this study the point of sale attacks are much more prevalent, since before the introduction of Chip and PIN cards, consumers only entered their PIN at ATMs. Now with the introduction of Chip and PIN, consumers are using their cards at various other public areas. To combat the compromising of the consumers PIN a shield over the keypad has been used as added security but in many public areas there are video cameras and a personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s PIN can still be captured on footage. So, although the UK banking industry has claimed to have rolled out this new technology successfully in 2006, there seems to be some negative aspects of this technology. The architecture surrounding Chip and PIN technology is questionable and the onus is on the banking industry to ensure that cardholderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s information is protected. Additionally, it also seems that Chip and PIN terminals offer no difference to what the magnetic stripe terminals offered. These terminals can be tampered with, which is a clear indication that there needs to be accurate configuration of these terminals so as to secure the cardholders data when transmitting transactions and that is not vulnerable to incident of attack. So the intent of Chip and PIN technology has more so opened a new marketplace for fraudsters than prevent/reduce fraudulent activity. PROJECT DESIGN, OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH METHODS The scope of this project is to outline the features of Chip and PIN technology and whether its implementation thus far has been beneficial. This section of the project would provide the methods involved in achieving the data for the project as well as the results based on the data collected. The chosen approach to this design is online research (journals/scholarly articles) along with a case study on the implementation of Chip and PIN technology in Trinidad and Tobago, with the case being Republic Bank Limited. Objective 1 A good foundation for this objective would be the interpretation of the credit cardà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s history. How has this cash-less mechanism moved from a local innovation to a global payment mechanism by use of digital communication across networks? In gaining a clear understanding on the reason for the implementation of this technology, a wealth of research would be conducted on credit card technology and digital security. Objective 2 A holistic understanding on the basis of credit card fraud and the types of fraudulent activities and the steps taken to prevent credit card crime. What technologies have been implemented and the effects/benefits drawn from these approaches. Objective 3 Expanding from objective two also discussed would be whether or not since the introduction of Chip and PIN technology in the UK, has there been a cascading effect of this new technology across countries. Analysing the increasing number of fraudulent activities reported from statistics, which compelled the global banking industry to find a seamless solution for the protection of cardholderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s data. Objective 4 An assessment on the introduction of Chip and PIN technology by Republic Bank Limited, which would include sourcing information on its implementation and the benefits derived. Further research would be on the acceptance (or non-acceptance) of the technology by customers. Objective 5 Lastly, from the feedback received from the interview conducted and by analysing the incidents of attack on Republic Bank credit cardholders, what was the determining factor in the bank aligning themselves with the UK standards set by EMV? CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK In identifying the framework to be adopted that can be referenced to the literature in this research, the author considered the Delone and Mc Lean IS Success Model. Using this model, the author would explain the net benefits of adopting Chip and PIN technology, relating it to Republic Bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s implementation of this technology. DeLeone and McLean IS Success Model In evaluating the success of Information Systems, the DM IS Success Model, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"systems qualityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ measures the technical success, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"information qualityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ measures semantic success and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"organisational impacts and user satisfactionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ measures the effectiveness of the system. The processes in the model are inter-connected by links, across the dimensions of the system. Figure 3: Depiction of the Updated Information Systems Success Model (DeLeone McLean 2002, 2003) The updated DM Model interprets the evaluation of a system in terms of the information, system, and service qualities and how these characteristics attribute to user satisfaction. As a result of using the system, certain benefits will be achieved and the net benefits will in turn (positively or negatively) influence user satisfaction and the further use of the information system. So, therefore three basic components make up this model, the creation of a system, its use and the consequences of its use. Case study as it relates to the ISS model. Republic Bank has been providing banking and financial solutions to individuals and businesses for over 160 years. Their mission is not only to provide efficient and competitively priced services but also to implement sound policies which will be beneficial to their customers. These factors presented provide clarity and influences the net benefits of the implemented Chip and PIN system at Republic Bank thus far. By use of the ISS model to map the research done in this project, the author would complete a step by step relay of the framework discussing the implementation of Chip and PIN by Republic Bank. Information Quality-Information quality refers to the accuracy/protection of the content of the data in transacting. How secure is the personalized data being transmitted across networks. When a customer presents their card to make a purchase, are they confident that their card information is protected because of the added security enabled on this card. System Quality-The system quality refers to the reliability of the network and the response time in transacting, notwithstanding the approved devices that accept personal identification numbers for all PIN based entries (the ease of use of the system functionalities). Therefore in rolling out this new technology the bank along with their partner merchants would train staff so that they are familiar with the best practice guidelines when using Chip and PIN. Service Quality-This refers to the back-end support systems that assist in usage of the technology. How reliable are Republic Bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s servers and IP networks? User Satisfaction- This encompasses measuring the userà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s entire experience-the purchase payment, receipt and service (the ease of purchasing without the fear of being a victim of fraudulent activity). Net Benefits -This is the most important success measure and it encapsulates the cost savings and the decrease in the value of fraudulent transactions arising from stolen credit card data. Was the implementation of this technology beneficial in reducing the incidents of card fraud? Are Republic Bank cardholders satisfied that their bank is on par with global industry changes? The focus of this success model lies in determining the impact the features of technology (information, system, and service quality) have on the variables user satisfaction, use, and net benefits. The main objective for using this ISS model is to establish the ultimate benefits derived from the use of information system both in individual and organizational terms. FINDINGS This chapter will illustrate the findings from the questionnaires submitted to a sample of the Republic Bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s credit card customers as well as a formal interview conducted with an employee of Republic Bank Credit Card Centre. The aim of the chapter is to source an awareness of the topic area Chip and PIN by cardholders and the personnel interviewed. Primary Data Collection For the basis of the findings of this research the author conducted a formal interview with a middle management employee at Republic Bank and also distributed questionnaires to a sample of the bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s credit card customers. A summarized version of the responses from the interview is represented in this chapter, based on the intervieweeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s knowledge. The questionnaires distributed were mostly closed questions so as to deliberately avoid open-ended respondent answers. Approximately 120 questionnaires were distributed to Republic Bank Customers. Only the answers to the key questions are represented in this chapter. Summarized responses from the interview This interview was conducted with the Supervisor, Card Services, which prove to be very insightful. The Supervisor spoke about the bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s vision for their credit card market, and how they plan to continuously innovate so as to maintain their customer base and attract new à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"profitableà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ customers. Since the credit card industry is a highly competitive one, the bank is constantly reviewing their interest rates and looking for new ways to give customer returns from the use of their credit card. Due to his long tenure at the bank and having the customer service background, the supervisor was able to give insight on what infuriates a credit card customer. He explained that customers become frustrated when they see added charges and puffed up late fees placed by the bank on their card statements. In view of the fact that most customers do not read the fine print when completing a credit card application, they are not totally aware of all the ch arges that can arise from delinquent payments. He further added that although queries like this can be explained by representatives at the bank who can provide valued solutions to the cardholderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s problem, the most infuriating of all queries from customers are unexplainable purchases on their account. At Republic Bank, fraudulent activity on a card can be detected from the use of their state-of-the-art security systems and their experienced fraud expert team that are in place to monitor and detect any unusual activity on a customerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s credit cards, but even with these measures in place, fraud can occur. The supervisor expressed that by implementing Chip and PIN technology for credit cards, the bank was able to be a step ahead of the competition and most importantly the card criminals. He also stated that although credit card fraud is not as prevalent in Trinidad and Tobago as in the developed countries, continuous education in counteracting fraudulent activities for their customer base is an effective method of addressing credit card fraud. He explained that Republic Bank has not had many eye-opening occurrences of notified credit card fraud but they believe that Chip and PIN technology is an innovative solution to the likelihood of this problem. He was also truthful in expressing that this technology is still new to the industry and all merchants have yet to convert to Chip and PIN enabled machines, therefore there is a window of opportunity for fraud until merchants are mandated to have these Chip and PIN enabled machines. He used the term mandate, because eventually all Republic Bank debit cards would also be chip enabled. In summing up the interview the author probed the supervisor on the bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s position on the studies done by the University of Cambridge team on Chip and PIN technology and the tested flaws of the system. His response was quite interesting, because it ventured into a thought-provoking discussion on research. He lamented that the sphere of research done on any topic would result in the researcher seeking out the positive and negative aspects of it. How the data is interpreted, reflects the real value of the research done. Questionnaire Findings Question 5: How often and where do you frequently use your credit card to make purchases? Aim: To assess how often the average Republic Bank cardholder uses their credit card. Findings: Most Republic Cardholders in this study used their credit card regularly, at least five times per month. Credit Cards are used for purchases at the supermarket, restaurant and retail clothing stores. Question 6: Has your credit card information ever been compromised? If yes provide details. Aim: To determine the number of incidents of attack on Republic Bank credit card holders. Findings: Less than 50% of the respondents have never had their credit card data compromised. Question 7: Do you understand the workings of Chip and PIN technology introduced to Republic Bank credit cardholders and the value to be derived from using this technology? Aim: To determine the extent of the customerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s perception of this technologyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s value and how the card is used. Findings: Although some customers are guarded about the use of their credit cards, most of the respondents are confident in the service that Republic Bank provides and believes that implementing Chip and PIN gives them that added security against fraudulent activities, especially those customers that frequently travel abroad. Question 8: How do you think by using Chip and PIN cards for making payments will make it easier in transacting? Aim: To establish the efficiencies in the use of Chip and PIN cards, on the time taken to complete a transaction. Findings: Many customers applaud this technology as it reduces the time taken at the cash register when making purchases. It is simple, easy and convenient and most customers are truly happy as there is no need to write their signature. For this reason they find the system most efficient as it prevents their signature from the likelihood of being forged. ANALYSIS The main objective for the research completed on this topic, was to show how and to what extent the adoption of Chip and PIN technology has improved credit card security for Republic Bank cardholders. At a glance, before Chip and PIN technology was introduced in the UK, there was nation-wide educational literature on the benefits of the technology for banks, merchants and most importantly, the customers. However, it seems that this programme led by EMV, created more enthusiasm in the build-up to its implementation rather than the actual usage of the system. From the research, the mounting negative features of the technology and use of the system is outweighed the decreasing positive ones. It seems that the card theft criminals were focused on a solution to obstruct the successful use of the technology before the intention to use. The question remains, which facet of credit card fraud has Chip and PIN really reduced? The research show that for point of sale transactions Chip and PIN has been useful in the prevention of skimming oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s card information, however the fraudsters have found alternative ways to improve on that tactic. Chip and PIN technology can only be used à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“successfullyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? for point of sale transactions and not online transactions, so fraudsters have modified their techniques as with the modifications of the technology. Based on the research framework adopted, Republic Bank has measured their net benefits of adopting the Chip and PIN technology by encircling the information, service and system qualities to deliver user satisfaction and usage of the system with this technology. The success of any information system is multi-dimensional and the relationships among the constructs relate to the comprehensive evaluation of the system. The variable dependent on these constructs are the net benefits of this system, and for whom? This local company has applauded this development and they are moving to enable all their plastic cards with embedded chips. For a regional bank that has not been plagued by customers being victimsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ card fraud, they value Chip and PIN as immensely beneficial in giving the bank a market advantage. It seems that Chip and PIN technology provides greater benefit to smaller banking industries than those on the wider scale. The data obtained from this research does not give conclusive evidence that by implementing Chip and PIN technology to reduce overall card fraud is not effective. In some markets such as Trinidad and Tobago, Chip and PIN has been a huge success in the bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s operations, but in others and more so the ones where credit card transactions are used most frequently, transaction are open to attack. As iterated by the Supervisor at Republic Bank, there would always be positive and negative aspects of newly implemented technologies and system, sometimes the negative outweighs the positive. However, how the negative aspects are addressed and reworked shows the strength and stability in the technology and how it can be further developed. CONCLUSION Report Assessment The insight gained from this project has made be aware of not just accepting à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"the next big thingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in technology. Ià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ve discovered that there are always drawbacks to new systems, and some systems may be suited for a particular environment. Additionally, the implementation of any new technology is not a hard and fast method; there is always room for improvement. Further the author believes that if an interview was secured with at least one person from upper management, namely the Chief Information Officer, the scope of the research paper may have taken a different angle. Nevertheless, the author has achieved the objectives sought and that is to show that Chip and PIN technology has enhanced the card security at Republic Bank. Although the company has not had many instances of card fraud on a large scale, this Chip and PIN technology is a major step in their protection of cardholderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s data against card crime. Learning Outcomes From writing this research paper, the author has realised and has come to appreciate the work presented by other researchers and the dedicated effort that must be placed into it. Writing a research paper gives an author the opportunity to really search deep within the study and present their views from a somewhat unexpected angle standpoint. Another learning experience from this research is reading and seeking out the important aspects of a topic and developing your views, but the main goal for any research is to carefully map your tasks and stick to the schedule. Although developing this research paper has been a huge sacrifice the wealth of knowledge gained from the study surmounts any other course that I have studied for this degree programme. References and Bibliography Bibliography Conford, T. and S. Smithson. Project Research in Information Systems. (London: Palgrave, 2006) second edition [ISBN 1403934711] Gillham, B. Developing a Questionnaire. (London: Continuum, 2000) [ISBN 0826447953] Hart, C. Doing a Literature Review. (London: Sage, 1998) [ISBN 0761959750] Oates, B. J. Researching Information Systems and Computing. (London, Sage, 2006) [ISBN 141290224X] References Stephen Hubbard, (2003),  card processing workflow  [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.techrepublic.com/i/tr/cms/contentPics/u00220030530gcn01_A.gif [Accessed 10 December 10] Muller Benjamin, (2002), Depiction of Updated Information Systems Success Model (DeLeone Mc Lean 2002, 2003) [ONLINE]. Available at:https://www.fsc.yorku.ca/york/istheory/wiki/images/9/91/D%26M2002.jpg [Accessed 16 December 10] EMVCo, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“About EMV,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? November 2009 [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.emvco.com/about emv.aspx [Accessed 12 December 10] Murdoch, Stephen J. et al (2010) Chip and PIN is Broken: 2010 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy held at the University of Cambridge, UK. Finch, E 2010. Strategies of adaptation and diversification: The impact of Chip and PIN and the activity of fraudsters.  Security Journal, Vol.00, 0, 1-18 Watts, S. (11 February 2010) New flaws in Chip and PIN system revealed. Available from: www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/newsnight/susanwatts/2010/02/new_flaws_in_chip_and_pin_syst.html [Accessed 4 January 11] De Leone, W, et al (2003) The DeLeone and McLean Model of Information Systems Success: A Ten-Year Update. Journal of Management of Information Systems, Vol 19 No.4, 9-30 PCI Security Standards Council (2010), PCI DSS Quick Reference Guide: Understanding the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard version 2.0 https://www.pcisecuritystandards.org/documents/PCI%20SSC%20Quick%20Reference%20Guide.pdf [Accessed March 15 11] appendices appendix 1 Topic Area Proposal Author: Sherryce Wilson Date and Revision Number: December 18th Draft 4 Working Title: An analysis into the evolution of Chip and PIN card technology as a solution to providing a secure medium for information security in the UK and the wider global community. Has this technology proven to be a successful security measure in transaction processing? Is this technology beneficial to the banking industry in Trinidad and Tobago? Main Theme: Information security continues to be a major concern for credit cardholders worldwide. Because of the current surge of identity theft and credit card fraud across the world; within the past decade many advances in smart card technology has been geared towards creating an efficient system to protect the cardholdersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ information when cards are used locally and across geographic boundaries. The main question by banking industry is whether the introduction of chip and pin technology has proven to be an answer to this problem? Research Questions: Explain the evolution of credit card technology? How can oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s credit card information be compromised? What is Chip and PIN technology and how has it supported in providing cardholder information security? Has Chip and PIN technology gained user acceptability across the banking industry in the UK and wider global community? What are the changes required and the implications of implementing Chip and PIN technology in Trinidad and Tobago? Outline of Argument or Position: In this project I will investigate the evolution of card technology to Chip and PIN. I would also illustrate the how a cardholdersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ information can be intercepted and thereby impede on oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s financial stability. Also, I would show how the EMV (Euro Pay, Visa, and MasterCard) has partnered with the British government to implement Chip and PIN technology as part of a national program and also how its use has resulted in a domino effect across countries. Additionally, I would try to argue the end-user perspective on Chip and PIN technology, and whether it has maintained the expectations as a secure identity verification tool for point of sale transactions, or whether there are fatal flaws in this new technology. Lastly, I would analyse the credit card industry in Trinidad and Tobago via case study with the case being Republic Bank Trinidad and Tobago Limited and the benefits and implications surrounding the use of this technology in this country. Links to wider Information Systems Issues: This project encompasses the discussion on the topic of Security Issues and the Digital Environment. Other units in this degree for example Sociology and Information and Communication Technologies have also contributed to the groundwork of this project. Five key words or phrases for use in an online research: Chip and PIN Technology EMV (Euro Pay, Visa and MasterCard) Credit Card Fraud Digital Security/Credit Card Transaction Processing Systems Alternative ways to research the topic and to collect data: National Library and Information Systems Authority (NALIS) IS Journals and Scholarly Articles Online Research Formal Interview with IT personnel at Republic Bank Limited Research Framework: De Leone and Mc Lean IS Success Model Required Resources and Issues of Access: The main resource for research of this topic would be online research, case studies on the topic area as well as scholarly articles. A formal interview with banking personnel on the implementation of Chip and PIN in Trinidad and Tobago would be conducted and questionnaires distributed to Republic Bank credit cardholders. Foreseeable issues would be the availability of the banking personnel as well as articles on the implementation of Chip and PIN technology in various countries. Assessment of Required Skills and Techniques: Excellent research techniques and analytical thinking is required for the basis of this research. Reference to five articles or books relevant to the topic, that have been read by the author: Doing a Literature Review How to Research Strategies of Adaptation and Diversification: The impact of Chip and Pin Technology and on the Activities of Fraudsters Chip and PIN is Broken (2010 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy) Project Research in Information Systems Justification of Interest to Others: This topic is important because it opens insight into the protection of your personal information and the vulnerabilities of data being exchanged across networks. APPENDIX 2 Project Specification Research Question: Has the adoption of Chip and PIN technology enhanced credit card security for Republic Bank customers. Objective 1: To examine the process involved in a credit card transaction and how it has become a popular medium for purchases. Activities: Read the history of credit cards, review online research articles Deliverable: To discuss and explain the evolution of credit card technology from the automated chip credit card to Chip and PIN cards. Objective 2: To review the global perspective on the issue of surrounding digital security mainly credit card fraud and identity theft. Activities: Analyse case studies on the nature of credit card fraudsters and how it has developed into this new familiar crime, identity theft. Deliverable: Use literature from Journals for write up in the Introduction Objective 3: Link the theories in the research framework to the research done in this study Activities: Review Journals, Case Studies and Articles on the IS theories that relate to the information surrounding this research. Deliverable: Develop my own views on Chip and PIN technology, linking this to the IS theories in my research. Objective 4: Give an explanation on the reason for the implementation of Chip and PIN technology in the UK and include any articles which give an account of tested flaws in the system. Activities: Review studies on the implementation of chip and pin technology. This is the basis of the Data Findings, which should envelop the introduction of Chip and PIN in the UK, the processes involved in using this new system and studies done by University Research Centres. Deliverable: Give a detailed account on the implementation of this technology. Is the system used for chip and pin transactions (point of sale and online) an accepted transaction processing system. Objective 5: To determine the whether the implementation of Chip and PIN technology in Trinidad and Tobago brought the success intended. Activities: Distribute questionnaires to customers and conduct interviews with persons from one of the well-respected banks in Trinidad and Tobago. Explain the banks approach to moving in this direction in providing customer satisfaction. Deliverable: Findings Analysis

Changes in the brain-death statute were made relatively...

Changes in the brain-death statute were made relatively recently by the governor; there is now more reliance on clinical evaluations and trancranial Doppler tests. Doppler ultrasound assesses measurements of blood flow. Used noninvasively, an ultrasonic signal transmission is carried through the body. The echo signal returns from red blood cells – the return signal yields a Doppler shift signal (Bay, 1999). Ambiguity and lack of regulatory control is echoed in David Powner’s article published in the Lancet Journal: â€Å"Clinicians do not always follow an established policy or provide appropriate documentation. Surveys or chart reviews showed that doctors sometimes failed to document specifics of clinical examinations, omitted criteria demanded†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"One of the obligations for nursing staff and everyone is to take care of the dead body whose perfused organs are being maintained by machines†, a panelist interjected. Many hospitals have policies whereby if one is hired by the hospital and has a personal, moral, or religious objection to certain things, then every effort will be made for someone else to participate – termination of pregnancy serves as an example, he continued. Furthermore, he emphasized that there does not have to be a conscientious objection on the part of the doctors or nurses based on spiritual, philosophical, or rel igious grounds; it’s solely based on not being required to give treatments that one believes are futile. As another member put it succinctly, â€Å"You can recuse yourself from performing such duties†. Moreover, the idea of futility is a vague idea, mentioned a panelist; he stressed that in this particular instance, regarding the woman’s brain-death state, this is totally futile. The whole idea behind a religious exemption is, as he put it: â€Å"You are not dead based on spiritual grounds. The family believes that it is not actual death – it is not cardiopulmonary death†. In addition, the doctor emphasized that many health practitioners also hold the same religious ideals and would conclude that the person is not dead. The panel discussed the New York statute as it compares to New Jersey’s: Under New York State law, there is allowance for theShow MoreRelated Paper761 Words   |  4 Pages In the 1790s members of the industry in both Paris and London were working on inventions to try to mechanise paper-making. In England John Dickenson produced the cylinder machine that was operational by 1809. Although useful for smaller enterprises, this lacked the large scale potential of the machine resulting from the invention of Nicholas-Louis Robert in Paris, which had a more complicated incubation period. The last of the early improvements to this machine were financed by the Fourdrinier brothersRead MoreReflection Paper836 Words   |  4 Pagesand integrating quotes. 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Second Foundation 4. Two Men and the Elders Free Essays

The Elders of this particular region of Rossem were not exactly what one might have expected. They were not a mere extrapolation of the peasantry; older, more authoritative, less friendly. Not at all. We will write a custom essay sample on Second Foundation 4. Two Men and the Elders or any similar topic only for you Order Now The dignity that had marked them at first meeting had grown in impression till it had reached the mark of being their predominant characteristic. They sat about their oval table like so many grave and slow-moving thinkers. Most were a trifle past their physical prime, though the few who possessed beards wore them short and neatly arranged. Still, enough appeared younger than forty to make it quite obvious that â€Å"Elders† was a term of respect rather than entirely a literal description of age. The two from outer space were at the head of the table and in the solemn silence that accompanied a rather frugal meal that seemed ceremonious rather than nourishing, absorbed the new, contrasting atmosphere. After the meal and after one or two respectful remarks – too short and simple to be called speeches – had been made by those of the Elders apparently held most in esteem, an informality forced itself upon the assembly. It was as if the dignity of greeting foreign personages had finally given way to the amiable rustic qualities of curiosity and friendliness. They crowded around the two strangers and the flood of questions came. They asked if it were difficult to handle a spaceship, how many men were required for the job, if better motors could be made for their ground-cars, if it was true that it rarely snowed on other worlds as was said to be the case with Tazenda, how many people lived on their world, if it was as large as Tazenda, if it was far away, how their clothes were woven and what gave them the metallic shimmer, why they did not wear furs, if they shaved every day, what sort of stone that was in Pritcher’s ring – The list stretched out. And almost always the questions were addressed to Pritcher as though, as the elder, they automatically invested him with the greater authority. Pritcher found himself forced to answer at greater and greater length. It was like an immersion in a crowd of children. Their questions were those of utter and disarming wonder. Their eagerness to know was completely irresistible and would not be denied. Pritcher explained that spaceships were not difficult to handle and that crews varied with the size, from one to many, that the motors of their ground-cars were unknown in detail to him but could doubtless be improved, that the climates of worlds varied almost infinitely, that many hundreds of millions lived on his world but that it was far smaller and more insignificant than the great empire of Tazenda, that their clothes were woven of silicone plastics in which metallic luster was artificially produced by proper orientation of the surface molecules, and that they could be artificially heated so that furs were unnecessary, that they shaved every day, that the stone in his ring was an amethyst. The list stretched out. He found himself thawing to these naive provincials against his will. And always as he answered there was a rapid chatter among the Elders, as though they debated the information gained. It was difficult to follow these inner discussions of theirs for they lapsed into their own accented version of the universal Galactic language that, through long separation from the currents of living speech, had become archaic. Almost, one might say, their curt comments among themselves hovered on the edge of understanding, but just managed to elude the clutching tendrils of comprehension. Until finally Channis interrupted to say, â€Å"Good sirs, you must answer us for a while, for we are strangers and would be very much interested to know all we can of Tazenda.† And what happened then was that a great silence fell and each of the hitherto voluble Elders grew silent. Their hands, which had been moving in such rapid and delicate accompaniment to their words as though to give them greater scope and varied shades of meaning, fell suddenly limp. They stared furtively at one another, apparently quite willing each to let the other have all the floor. Pritcher interposed quickly, â€Å"My companion asks this in friendliness, for the fame of Tazenda fills the Galaxy and we, of course, shall inform the governor of the loyalty and love of the Elders of Rossem.† No sigh of relief was heard but faces brightened. An Elder stroked his beard with thumb and forefinger, straightening its slight curl with a gentle pressure, and said: â€Å"We are faithful servants of the Lords of Tazenda.† Pritcher’s annoyance at Channis’ bald question subsided. It was apparent, at least, that the age that he had felt creeping over him of late had not yet deprived him of his own capacity for making smooth the blunders of others. He continued: â€Å"We do not know, in our far part of the universe, much of the past history of the Lords of Tazenda. We presume they have ruled benevolently here for a long time.† The same Elder who spoke before, answered. In a soft, automatic way he had become spokesman. He said: â€Å"Not the grandfather of the oldest can recall a time in which the Lords were absent.† â€Å"It has been a time of peace?† â€Å"It has been a time of peace!† He hesitated. â€Å"The governor is a strong and powerful Lord who would not hesitate to punish traitors. None of us are traitors, of course.† â€Å"He has punished some in the past, I imagine, as they deserve.† Again hesitation, â€Å"None here have ever been traitors, or our fathers or our fathers’ fathers. But on other worlds, there have been such, and death followed for them quickly. It is not good to think of for we are humble men who are poor farmers and not concerned with matters of politics.† The anxiety in his voice, the universal concern in the eyes of all of them was obvious. Pritcher said smoothly: â€Å"Could you inform us as to how we can arrange an audience with your governor.† And instantly an element of sudden bewilderment entered the situation. For after a long moment, the elder said: â€Å"Why, did you not know? The governor will be here tomorrow. He has expected you. It has been a great honor for us. We†¦ we hope earnestly that you will report to him satisfactorily as to our loyalty to him.† Pritcher’s smile scarcely twitched. â€Å"Expected us?† The Elder looked wonderingly from one to the other. â€Å"Why†¦ it is now a week since we have been waiting for you.† Their quarters were undoubtedly luxurious for the world. Pritcher had lived in worse. Channis showed nothing but indifference to externals. But there was an element of tension between them of a different nature than hitherto. Pritcher, felt the time approaching for a definite decision and yet there was still the desirability of additional waiting. To see the governor first would be to increase the gamble to dangerous dimensions and yet to win that gamble might multi-double the winnings. He felt a surge of anger at the slight crease between Channis’ eyebrows, the delicate uncertainty with which the young man’s lower lip presented itself to an upper tooth. He detested the useless play-acting and yearned for an end to it. He said: â€Å"We seem to be anticipated.† ‘Yes,† said Channis, simply. â€Å"Just that? You have no contribution of greater pith to make. We come here and find that the governor expects us. Presumably we shall find from the governor that Tazenda itself expects us. Of what value then is our entire mission?† Channis looked up, without endeavoring to conceal the weary note in his voice: â€Å"To expect us is one thing; to know who we are and what we came for, is another.† â€Å"Do you expect to conceal these things from men of the Second Foundation?† â€Å"Perhaps. Why not? Are you ready to throw your hand in? Suppose our ship was detected in space. Is it unusual for a realm to maintain frontier observation posts? Even if we were ordinary strangers, we would be of interest.† â€Å"Sufficient interest for a governor to come to us rather than the reverse?’ Channis shrugged: â€Å"We’ll have to meet that problem later. Let us see what this governor is like.† Pritcher bared his teeth in a bloodless kind of scowl. The situation was becoming ridiculous. Channis proceeded with an artificial animation: â€Å"At least we know one thing. Tazenda is the Second Foundation or a million shreds of evidence are unanimously pointing the wrong way. How do you interpret the obvious terror in which these natives hold Tazenda? I see no signs of political domination. Their groups of Elders apparently meet freely and without interference of any sort. The taxation they speak of doesn’t seem at all extensive to me or efficiently carried through. The natives speak much of poverty but seem sturdy and well-fed. The houses are uncouth and their villages rude, but are obviously adequate for the purpose. â€Å"In fact, the world fascinates me. I have never seen a more forbidding one, yet I am convinced there is no suffering among the population and that their uncomplicated lives manage to contain a well-balanced happiness lacking in the sophisticated populations of the advanced centers.† â€Å"Are you an admirer of peasant virtues, then?† â€Å"The stars forbid.† Channis seemed amused at the idea. â€Å"I merely point out the significance of all this. Apparently, Tazenda is an efficient administrator – efficient in a sense far different from the efficiency of the old Empire or of the First Foundation, or even of our own Union. All these have brought mechanical efficiency to their subjects at the cost of more intangible values. Tazenda brings happiness and sufficiency. Don’t you see that the whole orientation of their domination is different? It is not physical, but psychological.† â€Å"Really?† Pritcher, allowed himself irony. â€Å"And the terror with which the Elders spoke of the punishment of treason by these kind hearted psychologist administrators? How does that suit your thesis?† â€Å"Were they the objects of the punishment? They speak of punishment only of others. It is as if knowledge of punishment has been so well implanted in them that punishment itself need never be used. The proper mental attitudes are so inserted into their minds that I am certain that not a Tazendian soldier exists on the planet. Don’t you see all this?† â€Å"I’ll see perhaps,† said Pritcher, coldly, â€Å"when I see the governor. And what, by the way, if our mentalities are handled?† Channis replied with brutal contempt: â€Å"You should be accustomed to that.† Pritcher whitened perceptibly, and, with an effort, turned away. They spoke to one another no more that day. It was in the silent windlessness of the frigid night, as he listened to the soft, sleeping motions of the other, that Pritcher silently adjusted his wrist-transmitter to the ultrawave region for which Channis’ was unadjustable and, with noiseless touches of his fingernail, contacted the ship. The answer came in little periods of noiseless vibration that barely lifted themselves above the sensory threshold. Twice Pritcher asked: â€Å"Any communications at all yet?† Twice the answer came: â€Å"None. We wait always.† He got out of bed. It was cold in the room and he pulled the furry blanket around him as he sat in the chair and stared out at the crowding stars so different in the brightness and complexity of their arrangement from the even fog of the Galactic Lens that dominated the night sky of his native Periphery. Somewhere there between the stars was the answer to the complications that overwhelmed him, and he felt the yearning for that solution to arrive and end things. For a moment he wondered again if the Mule were right – if Conversion had robbed him of the firm sharp edge of self-reliance. Or was it simply age and the fluctuations of these last years? He didn’t really care. He was tired. *** The governor of Rossem arrived with minor ostentation. His only companion was the uniformed man at the controls of the ground-car. The ground-car itself was of lush design but to Pritcher it appeared inefficient. It turned clumsily; more than once it apparently balked at what might have been a too-rapid change of gears. It was obvious at once from its design that it ran on chemical, and not on atomic, fuel. The Tazendian governor stepped softly on to the thin layer of snow and advanced between two lines of respectful Elders. He did not look at them but entered quickly. They followed after him. From the quarters assigned to them, the two men of the Mule’s Union watched. He – the governor – was thickset, rather stocky, short, unimpressive. But what of that? Pritcher cursed himself for a failure of nerve. His face, to be sure, remained icily calm. There was no humiliation before Channis – but he knew very well that his blood pressure had heightened and his throat had become dry. It was not a case of physical fear. He was not one of those dull-witted, unimaginative men of nerveless meat who were too stupid ever to be afraid – but physical fear he could account for and discount. But this was different. It was the other fear. He glanced quickly at Channis. The young man glanced idly at the nails of one hand and poked leisurely at some trifling unevenness. Something inside Pritcher became vastly indignant. What had Channis to fear of mental handling? Pritcher caught a mental breath and tried to think back. How had he been before the Mule had Converted him from the die-hard Democrat that he was. It was hard to remember. He could not place himself mentally. He could not break the clinging wires that bound him emotionally to the Mule. Intellectually, he could remember that he had once tried to assassinate the Mule but not for all the straining he could endure, could he remember his emotions at the time. That might be the self-defense of his own mind, however, for at the intuitive thought of what those emotions might have been – not realizing the details, but merely comprehending the drift of it – his stomach grew queasy. What if the governor tampered with his mind? What if the insubstantial mental tendrils of a Second Foundationer insinuated itself down the emotional crevices of his makeup and pulled them apart and rejoined them? There had been no sensation the first time. There had been no pain, no mental jar – not even a feeling of discontinuity. He had always loved the Mule. If there had ever been a time long before – as long before as five short years – when he had thought he hadn’t loved him, that he had hated him – that was just a horrid illusion. The thought of that illusion embarrassed him. But there had been no pain. Would meeting the governor duplicate that? Would all that had gone before – all his service for the Mule – all his life’s orientation – join the hazy, other-life dream that held the word, Democracy. The Mule also a dream, and only to Tazenda, his loyalty- Sharply, he turned away. There was that strong desire to retch. And then Channis’ voice clashed on his ear, â€Å"I think this is it, general.† Pritcher turned again. An Elder had opened the door silently and stood with a dignified and calm respect upon the threshold. He said, â€Å"His Excellency, Governor of Rossem, in the name of the Lords of Tazenda, is pleased to present his permission for an audience and request your appearance before him.† â€Å"Sure thing,† and Channis tightened his belt with a jerk and adjusted a Rossemian hood over his head. Pritcher’s jaw set. This was the beginning of the real gamble. The governor of Rossem was not of formidable appearance. For one thing, he was bareheaded, and his thinning hair, light brown, tending to gray, lent him mildness. His bony eye-ridges lowered at them, and his eyes, set in a fine network of surrounding wrinkles, seemed calculating, but his fresh-cropped chin was soft and small and, by the universal convention of followers of the pseudoscience of reading character by facial bony structure, seemed â€Å"weak.† Pritcher, avoided the eyes and watched the chin. He didn’t know whether that would be effective – if anything would be. The governor’s voice was high-pitched, indifferent: â€Å"Welcome to Tazenda. We greet you in peace. You have eaten?† His hand – long fingers, gnarled veins – waved almost regally at the U-shaped table. They bowed and sat down. The governor sat at the outer side of the base of the U, they on the inner; along both arms sat the double row of silent Elders. The governor spoke in short, abrupt sentences – praising the food as Tazendian importations – and it had indeed a quality different if, somehow, not so much better, than the rougher food of the Elders – disparaging Rossemian weather, referring with an attempt at casualness to the intricacies of space travel. Channis talked little. Pritcher not at all. Then it was over. The small, stewed fruits were finished; the napkins used and discarded, and the governor leaned back. His small eyes sparkled. â€Å"I have inquired as to your ship. Naturally, I would like to see that it receives due care and overhaul. I am told its whereabouts are unknown.† â€Å"True.† Channis replied lightly. â€Å"We have left it in space. It is a large ship, suitable for long journeys in sometimes hostile regions, and we felt that landing it here might give rise to doubts as to our peaceful intentions. We preferred to land alone, unarmed.† â€Å"A friendly act,† commented the governor, without conviction. â€Å"A large ship, you say?† â€Å"Not a vessel of war, excellency.† â€Å"Ha, hum. Where is it you come from?† â€Å"A small world of the Santanni sector, your excellency. It may be you are not aware of its existence for it lacks importance. We are interested in establishing trade relationships.† â€Å"Trade, eh? And what have you to sell?’ â€Å"Machines of all sorts, excellency. In return, food, wood, ores.†*** â€Å"Ha, hum.† The governor seemed doubtful. â€Å"I know little of*** these matters. Perhaps mutual profit may be arranged. Perhaps, after I have examined your credentials at length – for much information will be required by my government before matters may proceed, you understand – and after I have looked over your ship, it would be advisable for you to proceed to Tazenda.† There was no answer to that, and the governor’s attitude iced perceptibly. â€Å"It is necessary that I see your ship, however.† Channis said distantly: â€Å"The ship, unfortunately, is undergoing repairs at the moment. If your excellency would not object giving us forty-eight hours, it will be at your service.† â€Å"I am not accustomed to waiting.† For the first time, Pritcher met the glare of the other, eye to eye, and his breath exploded softly inside him. For a moment, he had the sensation of drowning, but then his eyes tore away. Channis did not waver. He said: â€Å"The ship cannot be landed for forty-eight hours, excellency. We are here and unarmed. Can you doubt our honest intentions?† There was a long silence, and then the governor said gruffly, â€Å"Tell me of the world from which you come.† That was all. It passed with that. There was no more unpleasantness. The governor, having fulfilled his official duty, apparently lost interest and the audience died a dull death. And when it was all over, Pritcher found himself back in their quarters and took stock of himself. Carefully – holding his breath – he â€Å"felt† his emotions. Certainly he seemed no different to himself, but would he feel any difference? Had he felt different after the Mule’s Conversion? Had not everything seemed natural? As it should have been? He experimented. With cold purpose, he shouted inside the silent caverns of his mind, and the shout was, â€Å"The Second Foundation must be discovered and destroyed.† And the emotion that accompanied it was honest hate. There was not as much as a hesitation involved in it. And then it was in his mind to substitute the word â€Å"Mule† for the phrase â€Å"Second Foundation† and his breath caught at the mere emotion and his tongue clogged. So far, good. But had he been handled otherwise – more subtly? Had tiny changes been made? Changes that he couldn’t detect because their very existence warped his judgment. There was no way to tell. But he still felt absolute loyalty to the Mule! If that were unchanged, nothing else really mattered. He turned his mind to action again. Channis was busy at his end of the room. Pritcher’s thumbnail idled at his wrist communicator. And then at the response that came he felt a wave of relief surge over him and leave him weak. The quiet muscles of his face did not betray him, but inside he was shouting with joy – and when Channis turned to face him, he knew that the farce was about over. How to cite Second Foundation 4. Two Men and the Elders, Essay examples